Beauty is often a matter of personal opinion, as we might expect from the old proverb “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.” However, philosophers have debated whether or not there are objective standards of beauty that everyone can agree upon. Aristotle argued that beauty is a harmony of proportion, symmetry, and like qualities in an integrated whole. His “classical conception” is embodied in classical architecture, sculpture, music, and literature.
Other thinkers have developed a less rigid conception of beauty that is influenced by the mathematical sciences. For example, John Locke thought that an object’s beauty depends on the amount of light it reflects or absorbs, and that this can be determined by studying its shape and color. Aristotle’s philosophy was Christianized by Thomas Aquinas, who linked the quality of beauty to the second person of the Trinity and asserted that there are three requirements for a thing to be beautiful: integrity or perfection; order or symmetry; and clearness (Summa Theologica I, 39, 8).
For modern philosophers, aesthetics has evolved into a scientific discipline that analyzes an object’s components, including its size, weight, and texture. These elements can then be used to create a formula that calculates the object’s beauty. This process is based on the theory that beauty is a cognitive and perceptual phenomenon that involves both our visual and auditory senses.
The ancient philosopher Plotinus interpreted beauty in ecstatic terms that suggest it can be a source of spiritual delight. He wrote, “Beauty is a delight that produces astonishment and pleasure in us as it arouses in other beings a sweet trouble or longing.”
Aristotle’s theory of beauty became the dominant one for Western civilization until the 18th century, when it came under attack from enlightenment writers who criticized it for its association with hedonism and materialism. They viewed objects as ugly or beautiful mainly in relation to the pleasure they could give their owners.
Some philosophers have attempted to make the experience of beauty more objective by linking it to human activity, such as intellectual and practical pursuits. For instance, George Santayana suggested that an object can only be called beautiful if it is capable of stimulating certain emotions or feelings. This is a flawed account of beauty, however, because it attributes subjective states to objects that are not always capable of producing them.
Many women we interviewed reported that they feel most beautiful when they are engaged in activities that give them pleasure. They may be eating a delicious meal, wearing a favorite outfit, or exercising. But they also feel beautiful when they are doing something for someone else or for themselves, such as volunteering at a soup kitchen. The happiest moments of their lives, however, are when they are absorbed in loving and caring for others. Perhaps this is why real beauty can be most vividly seen – or felt – at the birth of a child.